Prior to my arrival in Mongolia I had the opportunity to vacation in Palawan, a lush tropical island in the Philippines. So when I arrived in Ulaanbaatar I was in for a bit of a shock as temperatures have been hovering around -20 F. Much to my surprise the weather seemed quite refreshing. No I had not lost my senses. The big beautiful blue sky, cold air, and snow covered tundra seemed almost intoxicating.

It had been years since I experienced the frigid winters of my youth in Western New York near the Canadian border. And my most recent stint in Massachusetts seemed to involve a comforting thaw at all the right moments. It was not long after my arrival to Mongolia however that I began to experience a nagging cough. Soon thereafter I had some minor respiratory ailment. And one night as I slept I broke into a dreaded fever.

Perhaps in a mild state of delirium, I began to wonder what I could do to escape my current state of misery. Then it hit me.

Shamanism!

An Introduction to Shamanism

In formal terms shamanism may be defined as a religion practiced by various indigenous people of the world and characterized by a belief in an unseen world of gods, demons and ancestral spirits. A shaman is a priest or priestess who uses magic for the purpose of caring for the sick, divining the hidden and controlling daily events.

According to Bethold Laufer, a German born anthropologist who wrote at the beginning of the 20th century the term shaman was first received by Russians. During the last half of the 17th century Russian, and primarily Cossack explorers and conquerors of Eastern Siberia first heard and recorded the word from Tungusian tribes during their adventurous travel expeditions. Then two other Europeans, Ybrants Ides of Holland and Adam Brand of England brought the word back home. They had been accompanying a Russian delegation sent by Peter the Great to China.

Shamanism however had been practiced long before this time in Mongolia. In fact its origin may be traced to antiquity. And it has been an important influence upon the psychology of the people up until the present time.

The Social Significance of Shamanism

The significance of shamanism and its value for understanding the evolution of human thought in Mongolia and elsewhere deserves our careful consideration. In various societies shaman have a unique social status and responsibility within their respective cultures. They are responsible for the perpetuation of local beliefs, the recording of history, and perhaps more importantly, the performance of various rituals designed to enhance the well being of members of their group. These unique people are priests, soothsayers and conjurors of the original religion of nature.

In Mongolia for example the curing of the sick through shamanistic ritual sometimes involves banishing evil spirits that are considered responsible for the onset of the illness. Elaborate rituals involving effigies or the use of sacrificial animals were used to annihilate the evil force. It was believed that as the effigy or animal was part of the evil spirit within the body, banishing this evil spirit would allow the person to become free from the source of their illness. The fascinating Mongolian book Nukh Boglokh Sudar ( The Sutra to Block a Hole), describes the practice of banishing the spirit cause of the sickness. An effigy or sacrificed animal is placed into a hole in the earth, and the book relates how " the hole is then pressed down with a pebble". It is believed that the illness of the person and other bad luck will vanish soon thereafter.

Other Examples of Banishing Evil Spirits

A similar notion is preserved in an invocation called Zetger Nomkhruulakh (Pacifying the Demons).

The shaman tells the spirit banished into the ground:

A stone of ten thousand chin
I press into your head spirit
I press into your heart,
The iron puerbu-nail, spirit

One stone of ten thousand chin

I press into your forehead
I press the peg with the handle of cypress wood
unto your breast
I shall kill you like a goat

One Mongolian's written reminiscences about shamanism also state:

"At the end of the night after the shaman had chanted
for five nights, striking his drum for the suppression,
he went into the desert. Clothes formerly worn by the ill person
some of his belongings, cooked rice and boiled eggs
were placed into the ground prepared sometime ahead.
On top of it was pressed a thick flat boulder bound in the middle
into two halves with black and white thread. Then the
shaman spoke:

"Demons and devils all
Open your ears and listen
After your seed of sin has been brought to an end

It is buried in that hole
When women grow beards
At such inconceivable time might it come out again
When donkeys grow horns.
At such a contraventious time might it shift!
When cooked rice sprouts
At such fruitful time it might get out
When chickens come from boiled eggs
At such forceful time it might get free".

The Suppression of Shamanism during the Socialist Period in Mongolia

According to B. Byambadorj, one of Mongolia's most prominent shaman, the struggle to maintain the nation's original religion has been difficult. As Mongolia had become a Soviet satellite shortly after the people's revolution in 1921 any religious expression violated the governments policy of state sponsored socialism. The government monitored the activities of shaman and numerous people were routinely arrested.

Byambadorj says how the fate of shaman was less severe than their Buddhist counterparts as at this point in time their numbers were by comparison relatively few. This was because shamanism had been subject to governmental persecution during the Manchurian controlled Qing dynasty that had been officially overthrown in 1911. Despite this fact however shamanistic practices managed to survive through the preservation of oral traditions.

In reflection on the impact of the socialist period on shamanism Byambadorj harbors no bitterness. On other issues however, he says how he is extremely concerned about current environmental problems, and feels angry about environmental pollution.

Byambadorj emphasizes that he thinks shamanism is the original source of religions in Mongolian society, saying: "They (other religions) should be respected. Religion should be followed with all of your heart".

He is enthused about the revival of shamanism. He is also happy to see that young people have recently become increasingly knowledgeable on the subject. He explained that as shamanism is native to Mongolia, people's ability to understand the religion through their own language and culture is natural.

The Revival of Shamanism

It is evident that the social and political milieu of the socialist period was quite different from the current state of Mongolia. A tour of Ulaanbaatar's streets reveals many houses of worship. They include Buddhist Monasteries, Christian churches and a new plan to construct an Islamic cultural center.

Shamanistic practices that were once subject to governmental suppression or public censure have experienced a significant revival. In fact the government has even now sanctioned specific shaman to conduct particular rituals. This is a far cry from the period that preceded Mongolia's democratic movement when shamanistic practices were forced underground.

Although there are no official statistics on the growth of shamanism, some local residents indicate that word of mouth of mouth is a good indication of its prevalence. There are reports that shamanistic practices are now increasingly being combined with standard western medical practices. This is coupled with the increasing restoration of faith in Mongolia's ancient indigenous religion.

Democratic Reforms on Freedom of Religion

In retrospect it is no coincidence that the increase in the expression of religious ideals in Mongolia's very recent past was followed by the formulation of the constitution adopted on January, 13, 1992. Section 15 and 16 of article 16 of the constitution state "The citizens of Mongolia are enjoying the following rights and freedoms:" "Freedom of conscience and religion" and "Freedom of thought, opinion, expression, speech, press, and peaceful assembly".

The ideals in this constitution are designed to protect human rights and freedoms and specifically guarantee the right to engage in various forms of religious expression. They aim to preserve the traditions of national statehood, history and culture and respect the accomplishments of human civilization. This would seem to be a significant step towards allowing and encouraging the current revival of shamanism.

Banishing of Illnesses into Effigies in Mongolia,
Walter Hessig, Asian Folklore Studies,
Vol. 45, No 1 (1986) pp 33-43

Origin of the Word Shaman,
Berthold Laufer, American Anthropologist, New Series,
Vol 19, No 3 (July-Sept., 1917) pp 361-371

Gerald Marchewka is an American freelance writer currently living in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. He may be reached at geraldmarchewka@yahoo.com